1. MarxismMarxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism holds at its core a critical analysis of
capitalism and a theory of social change. The powerful and innovative methods of analysis introduced by Marx have been very influential in a broad range of disciplines. In the 21st century, we find a theoretical presence of Marxist approaches in the western academic fields of
anthropology,
[1][2] media studies,
[3] theater,
history,
Sociological theory,
education,
economics,
[4] literary criticism,
aesthetics, and
philosophy.
[5]馬克思主義是
馬克思（Karl Heinrich Marx）、
恩格斯（Friedrich Engels）在
19世紀工人運動實踐基礎上而創立的理論體系。馬克思主義主要以
唯物主義角度所編寫而成。
馬克思主義理論體系包括三部分，即
馬克思主義哲學、
馬克思主義政治經濟學、
科學社會主義，分別是馬克思、恩格斯受
德國古典哲學、英國
古典政治經濟學、法國
空想社會主義影響，並在此基礎上創立的。
目錄
1 內容2 影響3 著作4 參考5 外部連接(Cited from:
http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9&variant=zh-tw)
2. L.S. Vygotsky 1925
“Consciousness as a problem in thepsychology of behavior”http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/1925/consciousness.htm
3. George Herbert Mead
George Herbert Mead (
February 27,
1863 –
April 26,
1931) was an
American philosopher,
sociologist and
psychologist, primarily affiliated with the
University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished
pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of
social psychology.
Contents
1 Biography2 Work3 See also4 Books by Mead5 Writings about Mead6 External links(cited from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead)
4. MediationMediation, in a broad sense, consists of a
cognitive process of reconciling mutually interdependent, opposed terms as what one could loosely call "an interpretation" or "an understanding of". The German philosopher
Hegel uses the term 'dialectical unity' to designate such thought-processes. This article discusses the
legal communications usage of the term. Other Wikipedia articles, such as
Critical Theory, treat other usages or "senses" of the term mediation, as for example
cultural and
biological.
For the Wikipedia mediation process for resolving disputes, see
Wikipedia:Mediation.
For statistical mediation, see
Mediation (Statistics). For mediation in computer science, see
Data mediation. For mediation in Marxist theory and media studies, see
Mediation (Marxist theory and media studies).
Mediation, a form of
alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate
dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more) disputants in reaching an
agreement. The
parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached— rather than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties)
states, organizations, communities,
individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the outcome.
Mediators use appropriate techniques and/or skills to open and/or improve
dialogue between disputants, aiming to help the parties reach an agreement (with concrete effects) on the disputed matter. Normally, all parties must view the mediator as
impartial.
Disputants may use mediation in a variety of disputes, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community and family matters.
A third-party representative may contract and mediate between (say) unions and corporations. When a workers’ union goes on strike, a dispute takes place, and the corporation hires a third party to intervene in attempt to settle a contract or agreement between the
union and the
corporation.
Contents
1 History of mediation2 Mediation and conciliation3 Why choose mediation4 Mediation in the franchising sector5 Early neutral evaluation and mediation6 Mediator education and training7 Mediator codes of conduct8 Accreditation of ADR in Australia9 Reference links10 Uses of mediation10.1 Native-title mediation in Australia11 Philosophy of mediation11.1 The uses of mediation in preventing conflicts11.2 Responsibilities regarding confidentiality in mediation11.3 Legal implications of mediated agreements12 Common aspects of mediation13 Online mediation14 Mediation in business and in commerce15 Mediation and litigation16 Community mediation17 Competence of the mediator18 When to use mediation18.1 Factors relating to the parties19 Preparing for mediation19.1 References for Preparing for Mediation in Australia20 Mediation as a method of dispute resolution20.1 Safety, fairness, closure21 Post-mediation activities21.1 Ratification and review21.2 Official sanctions21.3 Referrals and reporting-obligations21.4 Mediator debriefing22 Mediator roles and functions22.1 Creating favorable conditions for the parties' decision-making22.2 Assisting the parties to communicate22.3 Facilitating the parties' negotiations23 Functions of the parties23.1 Preparation23.2 Disclosure of information23.3 Party participation24 Choice of mediator25 Values of mediation25.1 Mediation with arbitration26 Mediator liability26.1 Mediators' liability in Tapoohi v Lewenberg (Australia)26.2 Mediation in the United States26.3 Without-prejudice privilege27 Mediation in politics and in diplomacy27.1 One of many non-violent methods of dispute resolution28 Mediation and industrial relations29 The workplace and mediation30 Conflict-management30.1 Measuring the effectiveness of conflict management31 Confidentiality and mediation32 Global relevance32.1 Fairness33 Bibliography34 See also35 Notes36 External links(Cited from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediation)
5. Psychological ToolsThe concept of "psychological tools" is a cornerstone of L. S. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Psychological tools are the symbolic cultural artifacts--signs, symbols, texts, formulae, and most fundamentally, language--that enable us to master psychological functions like memory, perception, and attention in ways appropriate to our cultures. In this lucid book, Alex Kozulin argues that the concept offers a useful way to analyze cross-cultural differences in thought and to develop practical strategies for educating immigrant children from widely different cultures.
Kozulin begins by offering an overview of Vygotsky's theory, which argues that consciousness arises from communication as civilization transforms "natural" psychological functions into "cultural" ones. He also compares sociocultural theory to other innovative approaches to learning, cognitive education in particular. And in a vivid case study, the author describes his work with recent Ethiopian immigrants to Israel, whose traditional modes of learning were oral and imitative, and who consequently proved to be quick at learning conversational Hebrew, but who struggled with the reading, writing, and formal problem solving required by a Western classroom. Last, Kozulin develops Vygotsky's concept of psychological tools to promote literature as a useful tool in cognitive development.
With its explication of Vygotsky's theory, its case study of sociocultural pedagogy, and its suggested use of literary text for cognitive development, "Psychological Tools will be of considerable interest to research psychologists and educators alike.
(Cited from:
http://shopping.yahoo.com/p:Psychological%20Tools:%20A%20Sociocultural%20Approach%20to%20Education:3000389692)
6. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a
German philosopher, and with
Johann Gottlieb Fichte and
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, one of the creators of
German idealism.
Hegel influenced writers of widely varying positions, including both his admirers (
Bauer,
Feuerbach,
Marx,
Bradley,
Dewey,
Sartre,
Küng,
Kojève,
Žižek), and his detractors (
Schelling,
Kierkegaard,
Schopenhauer,
Nietzsche,
Peirce,
Russell). Hegel developed a comprehensive philosophical framework, or "system", to account in an integrated and developmental way for the relation of mind and nature, the subject and object of knowledge, and psychology, the state, history, art, religion, and philosophy. In particular, he developed a concept of mind or spirit that manifested itself in a set of contradictions and oppositions that it ultimately integrated and united, such as those between nature and freedom, and
immanence and
transcendence, without eliminating either pole or reducing it to the other. His influential conceptions are of speculative logic or "dialectic," "absolute idealism," "Spirit," negativity, sublation (Aufhebung in German), the
"Master/Slave" dialectic, "ethical life," and the importance of history.
Contents1 Life1.1 Early years: 1770-18071.1.1 Childhood in Stuttgart1.2 Student in Tübingen (1788-93)1.2.1 House tutor in Berne (1793-96) and Frankfurt (1797-1801)1.3 Jena, Bamberg and Nuremberg: 1801-18161.3.1 Early university career in Jena (1801-1807)1.3.2 Newspaper editor in Bamberg (1807-08) and headmaster in Nuremberg (1808-15)1.4 Professor in Heidelberg and Berlin: 1816-18311.4.1 Heidelberg (1816-18)1.4.2 Berlin (1818-31)2 Works3 His thought3.1 The concept of freedom through Hegel's method3.2 Progress through contradictions and negations3.3 Civil society3.4 Hegel and Heraclitus3.5 Influence4 Hegel's legacy (interpretation)4.1 Reading Hegel4.2 Left and Right Hegelianism4.3 Triads5 Advocates6 Detractors6.1 Obscurantism6.2 The Absolute6.3 Totalitarianism6.4 Natural Sciences6.5 Psychology7 Works7.1 Published during Hegel's lifetime7.2 Published posthumously8 Secondary literature8.1 General introductions8.2 Essays8.3 Biography8.4 Historical8.5 Hegel's development8.6 Recent English-language literature8.7 Phenomenology of Spirit8.8 Logic8.9 Politics8.10 Religion8.11 Hegel's reputation9 Volume numbers and divisions, translations10 Notes11 See also12 External links12.1 Hegel's texts online(Cited from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegelian)
7. Sensor and motorSensory-motor skills are an important category of learning in many tasks and occupations (not to mention all forms of sports). Motor skills can be classified as continuous (e.g. tracking), discrete, or procedural movements. The last category of skills are probably most relevant to real world applications such as typing, operating instruments, or maintenance.
Behavioral psychology (e.g.,
Guthrie,
Hull,
Skinner) emphasized practice variables in sensory-motor skills such as massed versus spaced practice, part versus whole task learning, and feedback/reinforcement schedules. Long-term retention of motor skills depends upon regular practice; however, continuous responses show less forgetting in the absence of practice than discrete or procedural skills. Repetition after task proficiency is achieved (overtraining) and refresher training reduce the effects of forgetting. Unlike verbal learning, sensory-motor learning appears to be the same under massed and spaced practice. Learning and retention of sensory-motor skills is improved by both the quantity and quality of feedback (knowledge of results) during training.
Marteniuk (1976) presents a theoretical framework for sensory-motor skills based upon information processing theory. This framework emphasizes the importance of feedback in correcting motor behavior and selective attention in determining what actions are taken. Marteniuk suggests two ways in which learning/teaching of motor skills can be facilitated: (1) slow down the rate at which information is presented, and (2) reducing the amount of information that needs to processed.
Singer (1975) examined the importance of prompting and guidance while learning motor skills relative to trial and error or discovery strategies. His research suggests that some form of guided learning seems most appropriate when high proficiency on a new skill is involved. On the other hand, if the task is to be recalled and transferred to a new situation, then some type of problem-solving strategy may be better. In addition, guided learning may be most effective in early training while trail and error is important in advanced training. Singer suggests that the choice of instructional strategy for motor skills should depend upon the purpose and nature of the task.
Card, Moran & Newell outlined a model called GOMS (Goal-Operation-Method-Selection) which accounts for the sensory-motor and cognitive aspects of computer input tasks.
There is evidence that mental rehearsal, especially involving imagery, facilitates performance. This may be because it allows additional memory processing related to physical tasks (e.g., the formation of schema ) or because it maintains arousal or motivation for an activity.
Many forms of sensory-motor behavior are learned by imitation, especially complex movements such as dance, signing, crafts, or surgery. Consequently, theories of social learning and development (e.g.
Bandura,
Vygotsky) are relevant to sensory-motor activities.
Finally, theories of individual differences, such as
Guilford or
Gardner, have identified a broad range of sensory-motor abilities that vary across individuals.
References:
Adams, J.A. (1987). Historical review and appraisal of research on the learning, retention, and transfer of human motor skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 41-74.
Singer, R.N. (1975). Motor Learning and Human Performance (2nd Ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Marteniuk, R. (1976). Information Processing in Motor Skills. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
(Cited from:
http://tip.psychology.org/sensory.html)
8. SemioticsSemiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication,
signs and
symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems. It includes the study of how
meaning is constructed and
understood.
One of the attempts to formalize the field was most notably led by the
Vienna Circle and presented in their
International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, in which the authors agreed on breaking out the field, which they called "semiotic", into three branches:
Semantics: Relation between signs and the things they refer to, their denotata.
Syntactics: Relation of signs to each other in formal structures.
Pragmatics: Relation of signs to their impacts on those who use them. (Also known as
General Semantics)
These branches are clearly inspired by
Charles W. Morris, especially his Writings on the general theory of signs (The Hague, The Netherlands, Mouton, 1971, orig. 1938).
Semiotics is frequently seen as having important
anthropological dimensions, for example
Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication. However, some semioticians focus on the
logical dimensions of the science. They examine areas belonging also to the
natural sciences - such as how organisms make predictions about, and adapt to, their semiotic
niche in the world (see
semiosis). In general, semiotic theories take signs or sign systems as their object of study: the communication of information in living organisms is covered in
biosemiotics or zoosemiosis.
Syntactics is the branch of semiotics that deals with the formal properties of signs and symbols.
[1] More precisely, syntactics deals with the "rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences."
[2]. Charles Morris adds that semantics deals with the relation of signs to their
designata and the objects which they may or do denote; and, pragmatics deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena which occur in the functioning of signs.
Contents1 Terminology2 Formulations3 History4 Some important semioticians5 Current applications6 Branches7 Pictoral Semiotics8 Semiotics food9 See also10 Bibliography11 References12 Further reading13 Footnotes(Cited from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotic)
9. MnemonicA mnemonic device (pronounced "neh-mon-ik") is a
memory and/or
learning aid. Commonly met mnemonics are often verbal, something such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember something, particularly lists, but may be visual, kinesthetic or auditory. Mnemonics rely on associations between easy-to-remember constructs which can be related back to the data that is to be remembered. This is based on the principle that the human mind much more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising, sexual or humorous or otherwise meaningful information than arbitrary sequences.
The word mnemonic is derived from the
Ancient Greek word μνημονικός mnemonikos ("of memory") and is related to
Mnemosyne ("remembrance"), the name of the goddess of
memory in
Greek mythology. Both of these words refer back to μνημα mnema ("remembrance").
[1] Mnemonics in antiquity were most often considered in the context of what is today known as the
Art of Memory.
The major assumption in antiquity was that there are two sorts of memory: the "natural" memory and the "artificial" memory. The former is inborn, and is the one that everyone uses every day. The artificial memory is one that is trained through learning and practicing a variety of mnemonic techniques. The latter can be used to perform feats of memory that are quite extraordinary, impossible to carry out using the natural memory alone.
Contents1 First letter mnemonics2 Other mnemonic systems3 Arbitrariness of mnemonics4 Assembly mnemonics5 Mnemonics in foreign language acquisition6 History of mnemonics7 References8 External links(Cited from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic)
10. Superseded scientific theoriesA superseded, or obsolete, scientific theory is a
scientific theory that was once commonly accepted, but that is no longer considered the most complete description of reality by a mainstream
scientific consensus; or a
falsifiable theory which has been shown to be false. This label does not cover
protoscientific or
fringe science theories with limited support in the
scientific community, nor does it describe theories that were never widely accepted. Some theories which were only supported under specific political authorities, like
Lysenkoism, may also be described as obsolete or superseded.
In some cases, a theory or idea is found to be baseless and is simply discarded: for example, the
phlogiston theory was entirely replaced by the quite different concept of energy and related laws. In other cases, an existing theory is replaced by a new theory which retains elements of the earlier theory; in these cases, the older theory is often still useful because it provides a description that is "good enough" for many purposes, is more easily understood than the complete theory, and may lead to simpler calculations. An example of this is the use of
Newtonian physics, which differs from the currently accepted
relativistic physics by a factor which is negligibly small at velocities much lower than that of light. Newtonian physics is so satisfactory for most purposes that many secondary educational systems teach it, but not the "correct" relativity. Another case is the theory that the earth is approximately flat; while clearly wrong for long distances, viewing a landscape as flat it is still sufficient for most local maps and surveying.
Karl Popper suggested that a theory should be considered scientific if and only if it can in principle be
falsified by experiment; any idea not susceptible to falsification does not belong to science.
Contents1 Superseded biology theories2 Superseded chemistry theories3 Superseded physics theories4 Superseded astronomical and cosmological theories5 Superseded geographical and climatological theories6 Superseded geological theories7 Superseded psychological theories8 Superseded medical theories9 Obsolete branches of enquiry10 Theories now considered to be approximations11 See also11.1 Lists(Cited from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superseded_scientific_theories)
