5.17.2009

Anna Mauranen

ANNA MAURANEN is Professor of English at the University of Helsinki. Her research interests include academic discourse, corpus linguistics, contrastive rhetoric, and translation studies; her current research focuses on English as a lingua franca and modelling spoken language. She has served on the editorial board of English for Specific Purposes, TESOL Quarterly, International Journal of Applied Linguistics, Languages in Contrast, International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, Studies in Corpus Linguistics.

Her major publications include Linear Unit Grammar (co-authored with Sinclair, 2006), Translation Universals - Do They Exist (co-ed. with Kujamäki, 2004), Academic Writing. Intercultural and Textual Issues (co-ed. with Ventola1996), Cultural Differences in Academic Rhetoric (1993). She is currently running a corpus-based research project on spoken English as a lingua franca (the ELFA corpus).

Titles

Linear Unit Grammar: Integrating speech and writing
Sinclair, John McH. and Anna Mauranen
Studies in Corpus Linguistics 25
2006. xxii, 185 pp.

Translation Universals: Do they exist?
Mauranen, Anna and Pekka Kujamäki (eds.)
Benjamins Translation Library 48
2004. vi, 224 pp.

Academic Writing: Intercultural and textual issues
Ventola, Eija and Anna Mauranen (eds.)
Pragmatics & Beyond New Series 41
1996. xiv, 258 pp.

Series

International Journal of Corpus Linguistics
Editorial Board

Languages in Contrast
Editorial Board

Studies in Corpus Linguistics
Advisory Board

Articles

(Note: some contributions may not appear in this list)
Fairclough, Norman and Anna Mauranen 1997. “The conversationalisation of political discourse: A comparative view”. Political Linguistics, Blommaert, Jan and Chris Bulcaen (eds.), 89 ff.
Mauranen, Anna. 2005. “Contrasting languages and varieties with translational corpora”. Contrast in Context, Aijmer, Karin, Hilde Hasselgård and Stig Johansson (eds.), 73–92.
Mauranen, Anna. 2004. “Speech corpora in the classroom”. In Corpora and Language Learners, Aston, Guy, Silvia Bernardini and Dominic Stewart (eds.), 195–211.
Mauranen, Anna. 2004. “They’re a Little Bit Different… Observations on Hedges in Academic Talk”. In Discourse Patterns in Spoken and Written Corpora, Aijmer, Karin and Anna-Brita Stenström (eds.), 173–197.
Mauranen, Anna. 2004. “Spoken - general: Spoken corpus for an ordinary learner”. In How to Use Corpora in Language Teaching, Sinclair, John McH. (ed.), 89–105.
Mauranen, Anna. 2004. “Review of “Information Structure in Cross-Linguistic Perspective” by Hilde Hasselgård, Stig Johansson, Bergljot Behrens, and Cathrine Fabricius-Hansen (eds)”. Languages in Contrast 4:2, 319–324.
Mauranen, Anna. 2004. “Corpora, universals and interference”. In Translation Universals, Mauranen, Anna and Pekka Kujamäki (eds.), 65–82.
Mauranen, Anna. 1999. “What Sort of Theme is there?: A Translational Perspective”. Information Structure in Parallel Texts, Hasselgård, Hilde, Stig Johansson and Cathrine Fabricius-Hansen (eds.), 57–85.
Mauranen, Anna. 1999. “Will ‘translationese’ ruin a contrastive study?”. Languages in Contrast 2:2, 161–185.
Mauranen, Anna. 1996. “Discourse Competence — Evidence from Thematic Development in Native and Non-Native Texts”. In Academic Writing, Ventola, Eija and Anna Mauranen (eds.), 195 ff.
Mauranen, Anna. 1993. “Theme and Prospection in Written Discourse”. In Text and Technology, Baker, Mona, Gill Francis and Elena Tognini-Bonelli (eds.), 95 ff.

HOw to contact her

Anna Mauranen
Professor anna.mauranen@uta.fi
consultation: Thu 14-15 tel: 215 6127
room: B5004

4.21.2009

語音合成 Speech synthesize note

網路上找到有關語音合成的相關研究及資料:

第一筆:
本研究期望建立一套以自由軟體為基礎的國語語音合成環境,不但有相關的語音工具,函式庫,且有免費的原始程式可供使用與學習,從理論到實務皆能有良好的示範環境,繼而創造一個成功的國語語音合成計畫的社群運動。

簡介
語音合成的作法
語音學
語音品質的評量
專用術語
聲音的格式類型
免費的語音分析軟體
語音相關的中文書籍
網路資源

第二筆:
基於反轉檔查找與最佳片段選取演算法的中文語音合成系統


3.18.2009

Footnotes--Vygotsky in context P23-29

1. Marxism
Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism holds at its core a critical analysis of capitalism and a theory of social change. The powerful and innovative methods of analysis introduced by Marx have been very influential in a broad range of disciplines. In the 21st century, we find a theoretical presence of Marxist approaches in the western academic fields of anthropology,[1][2] media studies,[3] theater, history, Sociological theory, education, economics,[4] literary criticism, aesthetics, and philosophy.[5]

馬克思主義是馬克思(Karl Heinrich Marx)、恩格斯(Friedrich Engels)在19世紀工人運動實踐基礎上而創立的理論體系。馬克思主義主要以唯物主義角度所編寫而成。
馬克思主義理論體系包括三部分,即馬克思主義哲學馬克思主義政治經濟學科學社會主義,分別是馬克思、恩格斯受德國古典哲學、英國古典政治經濟學、法國空想社會主義影響,並在此基礎上創立的。

目錄
1 內容
2 影響
3 著作
4 參考
5 外部連接

(Cited from: http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9&variant=zh-tw)


2. L.S. Vygotsky 1925
Consciousness as a problem in thepsychology of behavior”

http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/1925/consciousness.htm




3. George Herbert Mead


George Herbert Mead (February 27, 1863April 26, 1931) was an American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, primarily affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology.

Contents
1 Biography
2 Work
3 See also
4 Books by Mead
5 Writings about Mead
6 External links


(cited from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead)


4. Mediation

Mediation, in a broad sense, consists of a cognitive process of reconciling mutually interdependent, opposed terms as what one could loosely call "an interpretation" or "an understanding of". The German philosopher Hegel uses the term 'dialectical unity' to designate such thought-processes. This article discusses the legal communications usage of the term. Other Wikipedia articles, such as Critical Theory, treat other usages or "senses" of the term mediation, as for example cultural and biological.
For the Wikipedia mediation process for resolving disputes, see Wikipedia:Mediation.
For statistical mediation, see Mediation (Statistics). For mediation in computer science, see Data mediation. For mediation in Marxist theory and media studies, see Mediation (Marxist theory and media studies).

Mediation, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more) disputants in reaching an agreement. The parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached— rather than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties) states, organizations, communities, individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the outcome.
Mediators use appropriate techniques and/or skills to open and/or improve dialogue between disputants, aiming to help the parties reach an agreement (with concrete effects) on the disputed matter. Normally, all parties must view the mediator as impartial.
Disputants may use mediation in a variety of disputes, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community and family matters.
A third-party representative may contract and mediate between (say) unions and corporations. When a workers’ union goes on strike, a dispute takes place, and the corporation hires a third party to intervene in attempt to settle a contract or agreement between the union and the corporation.

Contents
1 History of mediation
2 Mediation and conciliation
3 Why choose mediation
4 Mediation in the franchising sector
5 Early neutral evaluation and mediation
6 Mediator education and training
7 Mediator codes of conduct
8 Accreditation of ADR in Australia
9 Reference links
10 Uses of mediation
10.1 Native-title mediation in Australia
11 Philosophy of mediation
11.1 The uses of mediation in preventing conflicts
11.2 Responsibilities regarding confidentiality in mediation
11.3 Legal implications of mediated agreements
12 Common aspects of mediation
13 Online mediation
14 Mediation in business and in commerce
15 Mediation and litigation
16 Community mediation
17 Competence of the mediator
18 When to use mediation
18.1 Factors relating to the parties
19 Preparing for mediation
19.1 References for Preparing for Mediation in Australia
20 Mediation as a method of dispute resolution
20.1 Safety, fairness, closure
21 Post-mediation activities
21.1 Ratification and review
21.2 Official sanctions
21.3 Referrals and reporting-obligations
21.4 Mediator debriefing
22 Mediator roles and functions
22.1 Creating favorable conditions for the parties' decision-making
22.2 Assisting the parties to communicate
22.3 Facilitating the parties' negotiations
23 Functions of the parties
23.1 Preparation
23.2 Disclosure of information
23.3 Party participation
24 Choice of mediator
25 Values of mediation
25.1 Mediation with arbitration
26 Mediator liability
26.1 Mediators' liability in Tapoohi v Lewenberg (Australia)
26.2 Mediation in the United States
26.3 Without-prejudice privilege
27 Mediation in politics and in diplomacy
27.1 One of many non-violent methods of dispute resolution
28 Mediation and industrial relations
29 The workplace and mediation
30 Conflict-management
30.1 Measuring the effectiveness of conflict management
31 Confidentiality and mediation
32 Global relevance
32.1 Fairness
33 Bibliography
34 See also
35 Notes
36 External links

(Cited from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediation)



5. Psychological Tools
The concept of "psychological tools" is a cornerstone of L. S. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Psychological tools are the symbolic cultural artifacts--signs, symbols, texts, formulae, and most fundamentally, language--that enable us to master psychological functions like memory, perception, and attention in ways appropriate to our cultures. In this lucid book, Alex Kozulin argues that the concept offers a useful way to analyze cross-cultural differences in thought and to develop practical strategies for educating immigrant children from widely different cultures.
Kozulin begins by offering an overview of Vygotsky's theory, which argues that consciousness arises from communication as civilization transforms "natural" psychological functions into "cultural" ones. He also compares sociocultural theory to other innovative approaches to learning, cognitive education in particular. And in a vivid case study, the author describes his work with recent Ethiopian immigrants to Israel, whose traditional modes of learning were oral and imitative, and who consequently proved to be quick at learning conversational Hebrew, but who struggled with the reading, writing, and formal problem solving required by a Western classroom. Last, Kozulin develops Vygotsky's concept of psychological tools to promote literature as a useful tool in cognitive development.
With its explication of Vygotsky's theory, its case study of sociocultural pedagogy, and its suggested use of literary text for cognitive development, "Psychological Tools will be of considerable interest to research psychologists and educators alike.

(Cited from: http://shopping.yahoo.com/p:Psychological%20Tools:%20A%20Sociocultural%20Approach%20to%20Education:3000389692)



6. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

(August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher, and with Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, one of the creators of German idealism.
Hegel influenced writers of widely varying positions, including both his admirers (Bauer, Feuerbach, Marx, Bradley, Dewey, Sartre, Küng, Kojève, Žižek), and his detractors (Schelling, Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Peirce, Russell). Hegel developed a comprehensive philosophical framework, or "system", to account in an integrated and developmental way for the relation of mind and nature, the subject and object of knowledge, and psychology, the state, history, art, religion, and philosophy. In particular, he developed a concept of mind or spirit that manifested itself in a set of contradictions and oppositions that it ultimately integrated and united, such as those between nature and freedom, and immanence and transcendence, without eliminating either pole or reducing it to the other. His influential conceptions are of speculative logic or "dialectic," "absolute idealism," "Spirit," negativity, sublation (Aufhebung in German), the "Master/Slave" dialectic, "ethical life," and the importance of history.

Contents
1 Life
1.1 Early years: 1770-1807
1.1.1 Childhood in Stuttgart
1.2 Student in Tübingen (1788-93)
1.2.1 House tutor in Berne (1793-96) and Frankfurt (1797-1801)
1.3 Jena, Bamberg and Nuremberg: 1801-1816
1.3.1 Early university career in Jena (1801-1807)
1.3.2 Newspaper editor in Bamberg (1807-08) and headmaster in Nuremberg (1808-15)
1.4 Professor in Heidelberg and Berlin: 1816-1831
1.4.1 Heidelberg (1816-18)
1.4.2 Berlin (1818-31)
2 Works
3 His thought
3.1 The concept of freedom through Hegel's method
3.2 Progress through contradictions and negations
3.3 Civil society
3.4 Hegel and Heraclitus
3.5 Influence
4 Hegel's legacy (interpretation)
4.1 Reading Hegel
4.2 Left and Right Hegelianism
4.3 Triads
5 Advocates
6 Detractors
6.1 Obscurantism
6.2 The Absolute
6.3 Totalitarianism
6.4 Natural Sciences
6.5 Psychology
7 Works
7.1 Published during Hegel's lifetime
7.2 Published posthumously
8 Secondary literature
8.1 General introductions
8.2 Essays
8.3 Biography
8.4 Historical
8.5 Hegel's development
8.6 Recent English-language literature
8.7 Phenomenology of Spirit
8.8 Logic
8.9 Politics
8.10 Religion
8.11 Hegel's reputation
9 Volume numbers and divisions, translations
10 Notes
11 See also
12 External links
12.1 Hegel's texts online

(Cited from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegelian)


7. Sensor and motor

Sensory-motor skills are an important category of learning in many tasks and occupations (not to mention all forms of sports). Motor skills can be classified as continuous (e.g. tracking), discrete, or procedural movements. The last category of skills are probably most relevant to real world applications such as typing, operating instruments, or maintenance.
Behavioral psychology (e.g., Guthrie, Hull, Skinner) emphasized practice variables in sensory-motor skills such as massed versus spaced practice, part versus whole task learning, and feedback/reinforcement schedules. Long-term retention of motor skills depends upon regular practice; however, continuous responses show less forgetting in the absence of practice than discrete or procedural skills. Repetition after task proficiency is achieved (overtraining) and refresher training reduce the effects of forgetting. Unlike verbal learning, sensory-motor learning appears to be the same under massed and spaced practice. Learning and retention of sensory-motor skills is improved by both the quantity and quality of feedback (knowledge of results) during training.
Marteniuk (1976) presents a theoretical framework for sensory-motor skills based upon information processing theory. This framework emphasizes the importance of feedback in correcting motor behavior and selective attention in determining what actions are taken. Marteniuk suggests two ways in which learning/teaching of motor skills can be facilitated: (1) slow down the rate at which information is presented, and (2) reducing the amount of information that needs to processed.
Singer (1975) examined the importance of prompting and guidance while learning motor skills relative to trial and error or discovery strategies. His research suggests that some form of guided learning seems most appropriate when high proficiency on a new skill is involved. On the other hand, if the task is to be recalled and transferred to a new situation, then some type of problem-solving strategy may be better. In addition, guided learning may be most effective in early training while trail and error is important in advanced training. Singer suggests that the choice of instructional strategy for motor skills should depend upon the purpose and nature of the task.
Card, Moran & Newell outlined a model called GOMS (Goal-Operation-Method-Selection) which accounts for the sensory-motor and cognitive aspects of computer input tasks.
There is evidence that mental rehearsal, especially involving imagery, facilitates performance. This may be because it allows additional memory processing related to physical tasks (e.g., the formation of schema ) or because it maintains arousal or motivation for an activity.
Many forms of sensory-motor behavior are learned by imitation, especially complex movements such as dance, signing, crafts, or surgery. Consequently, theories of social learning and development (e.g. Bandura, Vygotsky) are relevant to sensory-motor activities.
Finally, theories of individual differences, such as Guilford or Gardner, have identified a broad range of sensory-motor abilities that vary across individuals.
References:
Adams, J.A. (1987). Historical review and appraisal of research on the learning, retention, and transfer of human motor skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 41-74.
Singer, R.N. (1975). Motor Learning and Human Performance (2nd Ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Marteniuk, R. (1976). Information Processing in Motor Skills. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

(Cited from:http://tip.psychology.org/sensory.html)


8. Semiotics

Semiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems. It includes the study of how meaning is constructed and understood.
One of the attempts to formalize the field was most notably led by the Vienna Circle and presented in their International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, in which the authors agreed on breaking out the field, which they called "semiotic", into three branches:
Semantics: Relation between signs and the things they refer to, their denotata.
Syntactics: Relation of signs to each other in formal structures.
Pragmatics: Relation of signs to their impacts on those who use them. (Also known as General Semantics)
These branches are clearly inspired by Charles W. Morris, especially his Writings on the general theory of signs (The Hague, The Netherlands, Mouton, 1971, orig. 1938).
Semiotics is frequently seen as having important anthropological dimensions, for example Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication. However, some semioticians focus on the logical dimensions of the science. They examine areas belonging also to the natural sciences - such as how organisms make predictions about, and adapt to, their semiotic niche in the world (see semiosis). In general, semiotic theories take signs or sign systems as their object of study: the communication of information in living organisms is covered in biosemiotics or zoosemiosis.
Syntactics is the branch of semiotics that deals with the formal properties of signs and symbols.[1] More precisely, syntactics deals with the "rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences."[2]. Charles Morris adds that semantics deals with the relation of signs to their designata and the objects which they may or do denote; and, pragmatics deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena which occur in the functioning of signs.

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Formulations
3 History
4 Some important semioticians
5 Current applications
6 Branches
7 Pictoral Semiotics
8 Semiotics food
9 See also
10 Bibliography
11 References
12 Further reading
13 Footnotes

(Cited from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotic)



9. Mnemonic

A mnemonic device (pronounced "neh-mon-ik") is a memory and/or learning aid. Commonly met mnemonics are often verbal, something such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember something, particularly lists, but may be visual, kinesthetic or auditory. Mnemonics rely on associations between easy-to-remember constructs which can be related back to the data that is to be remembered. This is based on the principle that the human mind much more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising, sexual or humorous or otherwise meaningful information than arbitrary sequences.
The word mnemonic is derived from the Ancient Greek word μνημονικός mnemonikos ("of memory") and is related to Mnemosyne ("remembrance"), the name of the goddess of memory in Greek mythology. Both of these words refer back to μνημα mnema ("remembrance").[1] Mnemonics in antiquity were most often considered in the context of what is today known as the Art of Memory.
The major assumption in antiquity was that there are two sorts of memory: the "natural" memory and the "artificial" memory. The former is inborn, and is the one that everyone uses every day. The artificial memory is one that is trained through learning and practicing a variety of mnemonic techniques. The latter can be used to perform feats of memory that are quite extraordinary, impossible to carry out using the natural memory alone.

Contents
1 First letter mnemonics
2 Other mnemonic systems
3 Arbitrariness of mnemonics
4 Assembly mnemonics
5 Mnemonics in foreign language acquisition
6 History of mnemonics
7 References
8 External links

(Cited from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic)



10. Superseded scientific theories

A superseded, or obsolete, scientific theory is a scientific theory that was once commonly accepted, but that is no longer considered the most complete description of reality by a mainstream scientific consensus; or a falsifiable theory which has been shown to be false. This label does not cover protoscientific or fringe science theories with limited support in the scientific community, nor does it describe theories that were never widely accepted. Some theories which were only supported under specific political authorities, like Lysenkoism, may also be described as obsolete or superseded.
In some cases, a theory or idea is found to be baseless and is simply discarded: for example, the phlogiston theory was entirely replaced by the quite different concept of energy and related laws. In other cases, an existing theory is replaced by a new theory which retains elements of the earlier theory; in these cases, the older theory is often still useful because it provides a description that is "good enough" for many purposes, is more easily understood than the complete theory, and may lead to simpler calculations. An example of this is the use of Newtonian physics, which differs from the currently accepted relativistic physics by a factor which is negligibly small at velocities much lower than that of light. Newtonian physics is so satisfactory for most purposes that many secondary educational systems teach it, but not the "correct" relativity. Another case is the theory that the earth is approximately flat; while clearly wrong for long distances, viewing a landscape as flat it is still sufficient for most local maps and surveying.
Karl Popper suggested that a theory should be considered scientific if and only if it can in principle be falsified by experiment; any idea not susceptible to falsification does not belong to science.

Contents
1 Superseded biology theories
2 Superseded chemistry theories
3 Superseded physics theories
4 Superseded astronomical and cosmological theories
5 Superseded geographical and climatological theories
6 Superseded geological theories
7 Superseded psychological theories
8 Superseded medical theories
9 Obsolete branches of enquiry
10 Theories now considered to be approximations
11 See also
11.1 Lists

(Cited from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superseded_scientific_theories)


3.17.2009

君尊科技「LiveDvD」 多國語言魔法師 震撼全球

由君尊科技獨家研發 震撼全球的學習軟體「LiveDvD」,將於7月31日在台北電腦應用展覽會首度展出。『隨選什麼,就學什麼』,您手中任何的DVD影片(含中英文字幕),都能夠變成『看電影學英語』了,透過情境式的學習方式,讓你學習英語更有興趣。只要你喜歡的影片,都可以透過LiveDVD來學習英語。LiveDvD取得全球專利技術,不僅能夠做雙語字幕同步顯示,還能流覽字幕內容、單字解釋、單字或句子發音、單字或句子收藏、練習單元…. 。使用者只要挑選自己想要學習的DVD例如:慾望城市、急診室的春天、Discovery、哈利波特、誰是接班人、明天過後等,放入電腦中,LiveDVD就能將它轉換成「看電影學英語」的互動學習效果。使用者不用刻意等待或尋找,便能夠直接利用隨手可得的影片,進行英語學習。學英文的模式還只是停留在背單字與死記文法嗎!背熟了大量的單字,但還是無法增進聽力與交談的能力嗎?透過LiveDVD多國語言魔法師,讓你不在只是當個說不出口的語言學習者。學習者能透過影片學習英文的準確發音,進而了解身處美國的英語對話用法。LiveDvD的應用不單只為了學習英文的人士,還可以應用在其他多國語言的學習,如日文、韓文、西班牙文、法文、泰文、葡萄牙文…等,可以有各種組合,應用範圍相當廣。也將會是歐美國家熱衷學中文的人士最方便好用的語言學習軟體。

LiveDVD官網: http://www.livedvd.com.tw/

3.16.2009

語音合成

語音合成是將人類語音用人工的方式所產生。若是將電腦系統用在語音合成上,則稱為語音合成器,而語音合成器可以用軟/硬體所實現。文字轉語音(text-to-speech, TTS)系統則是將一般語言的文字轉換為語音,其他的系統可以描繪語言符號的表示方式,就像音標轉換至語音一樣。
而合成後的語音則是利用在資料庫內的許多已錄好的語音連接起來。系統則因為儲存的語音單元大小不同而有所差異,若是要儲存phone以及diphone的話,系統必須提供大量的儲存空間,但是在語意上或許會不清楚。而用在特定的使用領域上,儲存整字或整句的方式可以達到高品質的語音輸出。另外,包含了聲道模型以及其他的人類聲音特徵參數的合成器則可以創造出完整的合成聲音輸出。
一個語音合成器的品質通常是決定於人聲的相似度以及語意是否能被了解。一個清晰的文字轉語音程式應該提供人類在視覺受到傷害或是得到失讀症時,能夠聽到並且在個人電腦上完成工作。從80年代早期開始,許多的電腦作業系統已經包含了語音合成器了。

應用
智能儀錶
智能玩具
電子地圖
電子導遊
電子詞典

參看
人機界面
語音識別
手寫識別
VOCALOID
初音未來

外部連結
TTS - ProgWiki

3.13.2009

Russian reading of Vol. 1, no. 1 - the Crow and the Fox

A. reading 1


B. reading 2


C. reading 3



Ворона и Лисица
烏鴉和狐狸

原文:
Уж сколько раз твердили миру,
Что лесть гнусна, вредна; но только всё не впрок,
И в сердце льстец всегда отыщет уголок.

Вороне где-то бог послал кусочек сыру;
На ель Ворона взгромоздясь, ?
Позавтракать было совсем уж собралась, ??
Да позадумалась, а сыр во рту держала.
На ту беду Лиса близехонько бежала;
Вдруг сырный дух Лису остановил:
Лисица видит сыр, Лисицу сыр пленил.
Плутовка к дереву на цыпочках подходит;
Вертит хвостом, с Вороны глаз не сводит
И говорит так сладко, чуть дыша:
"Голубушка, как хороша!
Ну что за шейка, что за глазки!
Рассказывать, так, право, сказки!
Какие перушки! какой носок! ?
И, верно, ангельский быть должен голосок!
Спой, светик, не стыдись! Что, ежели, сестрица, ?
При красоте такой и петь ты мастерица, -
Ведь ты б у нас была царь-птица!" ?
Вещуньина с похвал вскружилась голова,
От радости в зобу дыханье сперло, -
И на приветливы Лисицыны слова ?
Ворона каркнула во все воронье горло:
Сыр выпал - с ним была плутовка такова.


中文譯文(何茂正譯):

已經多少次告誡世人:
阿諛奉承是卑鄙、有害、不可信;
人家就是當作耳邊風,
馬屁精照舊能夠打動人心。

上帝賜給烏鴉一塊乳酪,
烏鴉啣住飛上一棵樅樹;
本想作為早餐享受這頓口福,
可享了想仍然用嘴含住。
不幸悄悄跑來一隻狐狸,
聞到乳酪香味停了腳步,
那乳酪饞得牠迷迷糊糊,
這小滑頭躡腳走到樹下,
兩眼盯住烏鴉搖著尾巴,
細聲細氣吐出甜蜜的話:
「親愛的,你長得好漂亮啊!
多可愛的脖子,多美麗的眼睛!
誰都誇你像神話一樣迷人!
多耀眼的羽毛,多好看的鼻子!
歌喉一定像天使一般好聽!
小妹妹,你既然美貌窈窕,
唱歌的本領又這樣高超,
你就唱吧,親愛的,別害臊!
你可是我們的鳥中之王啊!」
這預言家①被誇得飄飄然,
高興得幾乎喘不過氣來。
牠聽了狐貍的百般奉承,
放開嗓門剛「呱呱」唱了一聲,
乳酪掉了下去-狐狸叼起來,
那小滑頭一溜煙跑得不見蹤影。

【註】這篇寓言最初發表在《戲劇通報》1808年第1卷第2期上,署名「克」(「克雷洛夫的縮寫」),寫作日期不詳,1815年做了修改。收入1809、1815、1819、1830、1834年版《克雷洛夫寓言集》。

① 烏鴉在俄羅斯童話中是巫婆豢養的預言家,能預卜人的命運。


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3.08.2009

利維·維谷斯基

利維·維谷斯基(Лев Семёнович Выготский, Lev Semenovich Vygotsky,1896年11月17日1934年6月11日),蘇聯心理學家。他受到皮亞傑的啟發,從他的理論發展出一套更完善的發展理論體系。可惜他於37歲因肺炎英年早逝,而他的作品在當時亦只有俄語版本留存。由於他的政見與史達林相左,以及其理論不為當時蘇聯的心理學家所認同,他的作品在蘇聯一直被人忽視,並不為外人所瞭解。直到八十年代前蘇聯文件被解封之後,他的理論才廣為西方所知,並迅即被翻譯成各國文字;而他的學生亦藉此機會前往美國講學,並宣揚他的理念。

目錄
1 可能發展區
2 維谷斯基對語文學習的看法
3 參考列表
4 外部連結


可能發展區
維谷斯基理論的中心在於「可能發展區」(Zone of Proximal Development),指兒童在成長的過程並不一定如皮亞傑所論述的受到年齡所限制。如果有一個導師讓兒童嘗試一些他能力以外的事物,可以加快他的成長過程。

維谷斯基對語文學習的看法
維谷斯基認為語文是兒童心智發展佔有主導的地位。他提出了「Constructive Theory」來描述兒童認知的發展過程。相對於皮亞傑的四個階段,維谷斯基提出了思想發展的四個過程:
1. 知識構架
2. 從學習帶領發展
3. 與社會不可分割的發展,及
4. 語言在認知發展所佔的主導角色。

維谷斯基認為閱讀與寫作的教學僅是語文的一部份,語文的學習應是整體的。另一方面,他認為在語文的學習活動中,教師應在教學活動裏發展互為主觀的師生互動關係。換言之,教師在整個學習活動的過程中,透過有關的教學對話,將聽、說、讀、寫的教育概念化,讓兒童來自生活經驗概念相結合,讓學習發生意義。而語文的學習亦將不再只是無意義的抄寫練習,與日常生活變得毫無關係。相反,語文的學習已成為他們日常生活中人與人溝通的重要工具。透過不同的互動環境下,經老師、父母及同學的協助,學生本身的語文「可能發展區」亦隨而得以不斷的往上攀升。

參考列表
莊護林,《維谷斯基對語文學習的影響》,2002。
Wan, R. and Chiu, T., "The Growth of Logic in the Child", 2004.

外部連結
維谷斯基簡介(俄語)

伊萬·克雷洛夫

伊萬·安德烈耶維奇·克雷洛夫(俄語:Ива́н Андре́евич Крыло́в,1769年2月13日1844年11月21日),俄國著名的寓言作家,詩人,與伊索拉·封丹齊名。他通過將寓言內容與現實緊密聯繫和自己幽默而樸實的語言風格使寓言突破了道德訓誡的界限,成為了諷刺的利器。他通過寓言這一體裁將俄羅斯民間的生動樸實的語言引入俄羅斯文學,為俄羅斯文學的進一步發展奠定了基礎。

生平與創作
克雷洛夫生在莫斯科,六歲時隨退役的父親回到伏爾加河畔的特維爾,沒有上過正式的學校,只是自己在家讀書,並在集市向各種賣藝者學習繪畫,小提琴等。1779年克雷洛夫的父親去世了,母親想方設法把他撫養大。1783年全家遷到聖彼得堡居住,他也在稅務局謀到了一個小職員的位置。當時恰逢馮維辛的喜劇《紈絝子弟》演出,克雷洛夫看過後下決心要當一個劇作家。並寫出了劇本《用咖啡渣占卜的女人》。一個出版商買了劇本,克雷洛夫則藉機向出版商要了莫里哀拉辛布瓦洛等人的作品。1788年克雷洛夫母親去世,他辭去了公務員的工作,專心戲劇創作道路,先後寫了多個劇本,以諷刺貴族的《摩登小店》和號召人民團結的《勇士伊利亞》最為成功,他還試圖辦過諷刺雜誌,但所辦刊物均在葉卡捷琳娜二世的高壓下被迫停刊。
1804年克雷洛夫見到了俄國寓言作家德米特里耶夫,德米特里耶夫曾翻譯過法國著名寓言作家拉·封丹的寓言。克雷洛夫也曾翻譯過,就把自己譯稿給德米特里耶夫看。德米特里耶夫非常讚賞克雷洛夫的譯筆,並建議他可以寫寫寓言。不料這一寫就一發不可收拾,克雷洛夫憑藉寓言這一言簡意賅的體裁奠定了自己在文學史上的地位。1809年克雷洛夫出版了他第一本寓言集,收錄寓言23則,包括他改寫的伊索和拉封丹的作品和他自己的創作,均用詩體寫成,克雷洛夫本人希望通過寓言達到文學和文化啟蒙的作用,正如他在《狼和狐狸》中說的「我想把它寫在一則寓言里,因為轉彎抹角說出來的真理,別人就容易接受得多。」他的睿智、幽默而又通俗的語言,配上精彩的故事情節和帶韻的詩體,使得他的寓言突破了道德訓誡的界限,成為諷刺文學的精品,從而受到文學界和公眾熱烈的歡迎,廣為流傳。他的某些警句,如《鷹與雞》一篇中的「鷹有時飛得比雞還低,可是雞卻永遠不能飛得像鷹這樣高」至今仍膾炙人口。當時甚至發生過克雷洛夫改寫的拉封丹的寓言又被譯回法語,並比原作還受歡迎的事情。
1811年克雷洛夫被選為俄國科學院院士,繼續撰寫寓言諷刺上層甚至沙皇本人。1812年拿破崙入侵俄國,克雷洛夫密切關注戰爭局勢寫了一系列寓言。在庫圖佐夫決定放棄莫斯科,遭到上層不滿和很多人責難時,克雷洛夫寫了《大車隊》、《烏鴉和母雞》為庫圖佐夫辯護,指出此時最需要團結一致,不能各自為政。當拿破崙因遭到慘敗而求和時,克雷洛夫寫了《狼落狗舍》這一名篇。提醒人們認清拿破崙求和的本質。而當亞歷山大一世以勝利者的姿態返回莫斯科時,傑爾查文茹科夫斯基等克雷洛夫的老友都寫了歌頌他的詩文,惟獨克雷洛夫保持沉默,併為此而寫了寓言《黃雀與刺蝟》,自稱「自知只能呼喚黎明,不是迎接太陽的歌手」。一八二五年末,克雷洛夫參加了支持十二月黨人的雜誌《北極星》的工作。十二月黨人被鎮壓後,尼古拉一世想緩和和知名作家的關係,採取例如赦免流放的普希金等措施,所以克雷洛夫未受到牽連。他沉默了兩年,隨後又寫了多篇作品,如《大炮和風帆》《剃刀》等。
晚年的克雷洛夫仍然思維敏捷,有人稱讚他作品出的版數最多,他笑稱我的作品是給孩子看得,孩子容易弄壞書,版次就多了。有一次一位作家一個勁兒的大談特談他自己的作品,佔用了很多時間,然後問克雷洛夫有什麼新作品,克雷洛夫隨即寫出了著名寓言《傑米揚的魚湯》,諷刺雖然不錯但多次重複而沒有新義的事情。晚年的克雷洛夫很看重普希金,常和他散步並暢談文學,普希金也推崇克雷洛夫為最有人民性的詩人。因此普希金的死給了克雷洛夫很大的震動與刺激,從此再也沒有寫一篇寓言。1838年「慶祝克雷洛夫文學活動五十周年」舉辦。1854年在聖彼得堡的夏園的中心地帶,樹立了克雷洛夫的坐像,使得他成為第一位被樹立塑像的俄國作家。像為克雷洛夫捧書而坐,周圍是他寓言中塑造的眾多形象。

中文譯本
《克雷洛夫寓言詩全集》,裴家勤譯,中國第一個詩體克雷洛夫譯本7805679975
《克雷洛夫寓言》 吳岩譯 ISBN:7534223334
《克雷洛夫寓言》 辛未艾 ISBN:7532731642

菲律賓語-- 他加祿語

菲律賓語,是菲律賓自1987年菲律賓憲法規定的國語。事實上,菲律賓語是標準化的他加洛語,在是馬可斯倒臺後阿基諾夫人推動之下成為菲律賓的國語。

使用在 菲律賓
使用人數:
第一語言:他加洛語
第二語言: 超過 6 千萬

他加祿語使用在
菲律賓
區域:
呂宋島中及南部
使用人數:
第一語言: 2.2 千萬
第二語言: 超過 6.5 千萬

語系
南島語系 馬來-玻里尼西亞語族 婆羅-菲律賓語群 中菲律賓語支
他加祿語 官方地位
作為官方語言:菲律賓 (以「菲律賓語(Filipino)」這個名稱)
管理機構:菲律賓語言委員會 (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino)

他加祿語(Tagalog),又稱為塔加路語、塔加洛語和他加洛語1,在語言分類上是屬於南島語系馬來-玻里尼西亞語族,主要被使用於菲律賓。被當成是菲律賓國語及官方語言之一的所謂「菲律賓語」(Filipino),正是以他加祿語作為主體而發展出來的。
根據菲律賓政府2000年所進行的人口普查資料,在總數為76,332,470的菲律賓人當中,有21,485,927人是以他加祿語作為母語的。此外,還有將近5000萬的其他菲律賓人,則是以他加祿語作為第二語言。在菲律賓將近170種的本土語言中,他加祿語是唯一具有官方語言地位的一個語言(Wikipedia 2005a)。

目錄
1 名稱和歷史
2 語言分類
3 從地方語言到官方語言
4 他加祿語中的外來語舉隅
5 相關條目
6 注釋
7 和「他加祿語」相關的工具書舉隅
8 參考出處
9 外部連結


名稱和歷史
在他加祿語中,「taga」是「本地人」的意思,而「log」則是「河流」的意思,所以,「Tagalog」原本的意思是「住在河濱的居民」。
西班牙人於16世紀佔領菲律賓以前關於他加祿語相關的文字紀錄不是很清楚。1989年在拉古那地灣(Laguna de Bay)發現了拉古那銅版銘文(Laguna Copperplate Inscription)。銘文上記載了一件免除債務的事件,在銘文上記載的時間是900年4月21日。銘文中有梵語、古爪哇語、古他加祿語、古馬來語的詞彙。拉古那銅版銘文現在藏於菲律賓國家博物館。
在西班牙人到來之前,當地人使用一種稱為「貝貝因」的音節為基礎的文字書寫他加祿語。西班牙人到來後,這種文字被拉丁字母所取代。
某些語言學家推測,和也被歸類為「中菲律賓語」的其他語言一樣,他加祿語可能也是發源於民答那峨島(Mindanao)的東北部或維薩亞群島(Visayas)的東部(Wikipedia 2005a)。
第一本用他加祿語所寫的書籍,似乎是在1593年所出版的《基督教義》(Doctrina Cristiana)這本書。這本書總共出了三種不同的版本,一個是用西班牙語寫作的,另外兩種版本則都是用他加祿語寫作的,一個是用「貝貝因」(Baybayin)的書寫系統,另外一個則是採用拉丁字母的書寫系統(Wikipedia 2005a)。

語言分類
在他加祿語的發展過程當中,由於語言接觸的結果,它從其他語言當中吸收了不少語彙。他加祿語因為是馬尼拉為中心的群島貿易系統的共通語,所以殖民時期受西班牙語影響較大。禮貌用語及比較嚴肅的名詞都從西班牙語舶來。此外還有福建話英語馬來語梵文(經由馬來語)、阿拉伯語(經由馬來語和西班牙語)、以及在菲律賓呂宋島所使用的「邦板牙語」(又譯卡片片甘語,Kapampangan,屬於「北菲律賓語言」),都對他加祿語字彙的形成有相當程度的影響力(Wikipedia 2005a)。
雖然他加祿語受到不少外來語的影響,但是,對語言學家而言,該語言仍舊呈現相當明晰的南島語言特質,和馬來語印尼語夏威夷語帛琉語、乃至台灣南島語言,都有親緣關係(Wikipedia 2005a)。語法比印尼語馬來西亞的國語馬來語要複雜,但沒爪哇語一樣分嚴格的社會等級用法,和臺灣阿美語還有淵源關係。
更進一步地說,他加祿語屬於「南島語系」、「馬來-玻里尼西亞語族」、「西馬來-玻里尼西亞語支」、「美索菲律賓語言」中的「中菲律賓語言」,和呂宋島東南方之比可半島(Bicol Peninsula)以及呂宋島和民答那峨島之間之維薩亞群島所使用的語言 --- 比如說比口語 (Bikol)、希利蓋農語 (Hiligaynon)、瓦瑞瓦瑞語(Waray-Waray)、以及宿霧語 --- 都有更接近的關係(Wikipedia 2005a)。

從地方語言到官方語言
使用塔加洛語的人,主要是分佈在呂宋島的中部和南部,包括大馬尼拉區、馬尼拉以北的5個省份、以及馬尼拉以南的6個省份。此外,位於呂宋島南部的鹿邦島(Lubang)、馬林杜克島(Marinduque)、以及民都洛島(Mindoro)的北部和東部,也都有塔加洛語的使用人口(Wikipedia 2005a;李林 2000)。
以前官方語言是英文美西戰爭前用的是西班牙語1935年,新當選該年成立之「菲律賓自治政府」總統的奎松(Manuel L. Quezon),在菲律賓憲法第14條第3項中加上了所謂的「國語條款」:「…… 國會應該在某一個既存之本土語言(one of the existing native languages)的基礎上,盡最大努力發展出一個國家語言 ……」(引自Belvez 2002) 。在成立了一個特別的委員會經過一番研究以後,有8個使用人口在100萬人以上的「主要」語言成為菲律賓國家語言的候選對象。後來,只剩下兩個語言成為最後的競爭者,一個是宿霧語(Cebuano),另一個則是塔加洛語(Rubino 1998)。宿霧語是當時菲律賓使用人口最多的一個本土語言,主要使用於維薩亞群島的宿霧島(Cebu)、薄荷島(Bohol)、尼格洛斯島(Negros)、萊特島(Leyte)西部、以及民答那峨島的北部(Wikipedia 2005b)。塔加洛語雖然在使用人數上佔第二位,但卻是大馬尼拉地區的主要語言。後來該委員會選擇了塔加洛語當成菲律賓發展中之國家語言的基礎。
1937年,奎松總統宣佈塔加洛語為菲律賓的國語。1940年,塔加洛語開始在菲律賓所有的學校中傳授。1946年7月4日,菲律賓正式從美國手中宣佈獨立,塔加洛語也才正式成為菲律賓的國語。從1961年1987年,塔加洛語也被稱之為「菲律賓語」(Pilipino)。1987年以後,「菲律賓語」的拼法又改成「Filipino」(Wikipedia 2005a)。馬可斯倒臺後,阿基諾夫人推動之下,更確立了它的菲律賓國語地位。

參見:菲律賓語

2.23.2009

音韻學


語音
• 在語音學音韻學中,語音一詞所指的是說話時所發出的聲音。語音是具體存在的物理現象。最小單位的語音片段稱為音素
• 與語音相對的概念是音位。在某個語言中,語音與語音之間的對照會造成意義的區別。表達相同語意的語音集合稱為音位。
• 以普通話為例,有聲子音[b]與無聲不送氣子音[p]不會造成語意的區別,因此有聲子音[b]和無聲不送氣子音[p]都劃歸為同一個音位/p/;但無聲不送氣子音[p]與無聲送氣子音[ph]之間的對照則會產生語意差異,因此無聲送氣子音 [ph]屬另一個音位/ph/。
• 相較之下,在英語中,有聲子音[b]與無聲不送氣子音[p]會造成語意的區別,因此有聲子音[b]和無聲不送氣子音[p]分屬不同的音位/b/與/p/;但無聲不送氣子音[p]與無聲送氣子音[ph]的差異就不會造成語意不同,因此這兩個語音被歸為同一個音位/p/。
• 被歸於同一個音位的類似但不同的語音稱為同位音。

語音資料庫
• 語音資料庫 (單音節、多音節組合、語法例句、中介語資料庫) 。
• 在教學上扮演極重要的角色,因為語音是口語表達不可或缺的成分,語音習得不但需要正確的指導,還需要反覆不斷練習。
• 台灣的語音資料庫:MAT 語音資料庫
(MAT= Mandarin across Taiwan)

語言分類
• 語言系屬分類是指根據語言的發展和演變、直接而明顯的關聯,對語言進行歸類的方法。 語言系屬分類主要依據語言語音詞彙語法規則之間某些對應關係,把具有相似的語言歸於同一類語群,這種語群稱為同族語言即「語族」;按「語族」之間的某些對應關係,又歸在一起,這類同類語族稱為同系語言即「語系」。
• 現今全世界現存的語言接近7000種,根據系屬分類的方法,將語言分為若干個語群,每個語群中的語言可以直接或間接反應語言分化與進化,而同類語群的語言是由一個祖語(母語言)演變而來的。語言系屬分類法採取「祖語」作為前綴,其分支連結下來,圖標圖表類似一個系譜表。
• 一般只對自然語言進行系屬分類,而不考慮人工語言
• 在中文語境裡,對世界諸語言的分類,有「語系」、語系下面的「語族」,較大語族下面衍生出語言支系(或簡稱「語支」),最後就是具體語言,最多達到四個層次。但實際上,語言的分支比這往往更複雜,所以有時亦因利乘便的把分類再細分為「亞語族」、「亞語支」等分類。

• 1 不同的系屬分類方法
– 1.1 以母語使用人口排列
– 1.2 以語言種類多少排列

語音處理器官
• 語音的產生是從肺部將氣流壓縮出來,經過喉嚨(聲帶) ,再到口腔或鼻腔,再到口腔或鼻腔,最後傳送到空氣中。
• 語音的變化,則是由控制發音器官的神經及肌肉或操弄,如聲帶的開合,喉嚨部位肌肉緊張程度,軟顎下降導致鼻音產生。
• 發音器官可以細分為:聲帶、上下 、上下 、上齒齦上顎尖 、舌前部 、舌中部 、舌後部

音韻學經典著作
• Readings:
• Solé, Maria-Josep. Beddor Patrice, Speeter. Ohala, Manjari. 2007. Experimental Approaches To Phonology. New York: Oxford University Press. NEW!!
• Maddieson, Ian. (1984). Patterns of sounds. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
• Roca, I., Johnson, W., & Roca, A. (1999). A Course in Phonology.
• Hulst, H. van der. Cognitive phonology.
• Language Families

音韻學家
Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) Kruszewski, M. H. (1851-87) (Kazan School)
Sweet, Henry (1845-1912)
• Kruszewski, Mikol/aj (1851-1887)
Saussure, Ferdinand de (1857-1913)
Jones, Daniel (1881-1967)
Firth, J. R. (1890-1960, London School: Prosodic Phonology)
Trubetzkoj, Nikolaj S. (16. April, 1890-25 Juni, 1938)
Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) (Prague School of Phonology)
Hjelmslev, Louis (1899-1965, Copenhagen School)
William Dwight Whitney
Franz Boas
Edward Sapir
Leonard Bloomfield (American Structuralist Phonology)
Morris Halle
Fant, Gunnar
Noam Chomsky (Generative Phonology)
• Donegan, P. J.
• Stampe, D.
Vennemann, Theo
• Hopper, J. B.
John Ohala

音韻學派
Historical Phonology
Evolutionary Phonology
Kazan School
American Structuralist Phonology
Prague School of Phonology (1939)
Copenhagen School (1943)
London School: Prosodic Phonology (1946,1757)
Dependency Phonology (1950s,1986,1987)
Tagmemic Phonology(1987)
Sign Language Phonology (1960s,1995)
Stratificational Phonology (1960s)
Generative Phonology (1968)
Syllabic Phonology (1969,1995)
Government Phonology
Nonsegmental Phonology(1976)
Natural Phonology (1972,1979)
Natural Generative Phonology (1979)
• Natural Equational Phonology(1981)
Categorial Phonology (1960s,1981)
CV Phonology (1983)
Discourse phonological (1984)
Particle Phonology (1984)
Atomic Phonology (1985)
Lexical Phonology (1985)
Declarative Phonology (1986)
Declarative Lexical Phonology
Prosodic Phonology (1986)
Autosegmental Phonology (1976,1989)
Three Dimensional Phonology (1980)
Multidimensional Phonology
Metrical Phonology (1982,1989)
Moraic Phonology (1983,1991)
Dynamic Phonology (1985)
Experimental Phonology (1986)
Laboratory Phonology(1990)
Formal Phonology (1992)
Constraint Based Phonology (1992)
Attribute Value Phonology (1992)
Cognitive Phonology (1993)
Harmonic Phonology (1993)
Optimality Phonology (1993,1997,1999)
Grounded Phonology(1994)
Computational Phonology (1995)
Intonational Phonology (1996)
Functional Phonology(1998)
Second Language Phonology(2001)
Phonetically Based Phonology (2004)


音韻系統實證
• Ohala (1986,188) defines that “the term ‘experimental phonology’ denotes the experimental psychological investigation of the units and concepts of formal phonological and morphophonemic analysis in linguistics (which excludes researches in the experimental phonetics) .”

應用音韻學
• Applied English Phonology covers the fundamental aspects of the English sound system including basic phonetic elements, phonemics, allophonic rules of English consonants and vowels, phonotactics, and stress and intonation.
• Fulfills the need for a practical and accessible source of applied English phonology for students from Applied Linguistics, TESOL, and Speech Pathology programs

參考資料
http://zh.wikipedia.org/
http://www.ling.fju.edu.tw/phono/
http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405108711.html